Algorithms for autonomous navigation in environments without Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) coverage mainly rely on onboard perception systems. These systems commonly incorporate sensors like cameras and Light Detection and Rangings (LiDARs), the performance of which may degrade in the presence of aerosol particles. Thus, there is a need of fusing acquired data from these sensors with data from Radio Detection and Rangings (RADARs) which can penetrate through such particles. Overall, this will improve the performance of localization and collision avoidance algorithms under such environmental conditions. This paper introduces a multimodal dataset from the harsh and unstructured underground environment with aerosol particles. A detailed description of the onboard sensors and the environment, where the dataset is collected are presented to enable full evaluation of acquired data. Furthermore, the dataset contains synchronized raw data measurements from all onboard sensors in Robot Operating System (ROS) format to facilitate the evaluation of navigation, and localization algorithms in such environments. In contrast to the existing datasets, the focus of this paper is not only to capture both temporal and spatial data diversities but also to present the impact of harsh conditions on captured data. Therefore, to validate the dataset, a preliminary comparison of odometry from onboard LiDARs is presented.

In this article, we propose a novel LiDAR and event camera fusion modality for subterranean (SubT) environments for fast and precise object and human detection in a wide variety of adverse lighting conditions, such as low or no light, high-contrast zones and in the presence of blinding light sources. In the proposed approach, information from the event camera and LiDAR are fused to localize a human or an object-of-interest in a robot's local frame. The local detection is then transformed into the inertial frame and used to set references for a Nonlinear Model Predictive Controller (NMPC) for reactive tracking of humans or objects in SubT environments. The proposed novel fusion uses intensity filtering and K-means clustering on the LiDAR point cloud and frequency filtering and connectivity clustering on the events induced in an event camera by the returning LiDAR beams. The centroids of the clusters in the event camera and LiDAR streams are then paired to localize reflective markers present on safety vests and signs in SubT environments. The efficacy of the proposed scheme has been experimentally validated in a real SubT environment (a mine) with a Pioneer 3AT mobile robot. The experimental results show real-time performance for human detection and the NMPC-based controller allows for reactive tracking of a human or object of interest, even in complete darkness.

Autonomous navigation of robots in harsh and GPS denied subterranean (SubT) environments with lack of natural or poor illumination is a challenging task that fosters the development of algorithms for pose estimation and mapping. Inspired by the need for real-life deployment of autonomous robots in such environments, this article presents an experimental comparative study of 3D SLAM algorithms. The study focuses on state-of-the-art Lidar SLAM algorithms with open-source implementation that are i) lidar-only like BLAM, LOAM, A-LOAM, ISC-LOAM and hdl graph slam, or ii) lidar-inertial like LeGO-LOAM, Cartographer, LIO-mapping and LIO-SAM. The evaluation of the methods is performed based on a dataset collected from the Boston Dynamics Spot robot equipped with 3D lidar Velodyne Puck Lite and IMU Vectornav VN-100, during a mission in an underground tunnel. In the evaluation process poses and 3D tunnel reconstructions from SLAM algorithms are compared against each other to find methods with most solid performance in terms of pose accuracy and map quality.